- Iceland prepares to shield geothermal plant from risk of volcanic eruption Reuters
- As Iceland braces for a potential volcanic eruption, what is likely to happen and what are the risks? CNN
- Fissures open up on the streets of an Iceland fishing town near a volcano that may soon erupt euronews
- Hard Numbers: Iceland’s eruption alert, Scott’s campaign ends, Myanmar junta’s challenge, Japan’s evacuation drill, Aussie’s Tuvalu deal, Djibouti’s first satellite GZERO Media
- ‘Tremendous uncertainty’: Iceland braces for eruption Reuters
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Tag Archives: volcanic
Iceland warns of ‘significant likelihood’ of volcanic eruption as earthquakes shake southwest – ABC News
- Iceland warns of ‘significant likelihood’ of volcanic eruption as earthquakes shake southwest ABC News
- Iceland: 1,400 earthquakes strike in 24 hours, amid possible volcanic eruption | LiveNOW from FOX LiveNOW from FOX
- As Iceland braces for a potential volcanic eruption, what is likely to happen and what are the risks? CNN
- Iceland Declares State of Emergency After 800 Earthquakes Rattle Nation in 14 Hours | News18 | N18V CNN-News18
- Iceland Braces for Possible Volcanic Eruption After Quakes Rattle Grindavik The Wall Street Journal
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One year after volcanic blast, many of Tonga’s reefs lay silent
Jan 15 (Reuters) – One year on from the massive eruption of an underwater volcano in the South Pacific, the island nation of Tonga is still dealing with the damage to its coastal waters.
When Hunga-Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai went off, it sent a shockwave around the world, produced a plume of water and ash that soared higher into the atmosphere than any other on record, and triggered tsunami waves that ricocheted across the region – slamming into the archipelago which lies southeast of Fiji.
Coral reefs were turned to rubble and many fish perished or migrated away.
The result has Tongans struggling, with more than 80% of Tongan families relying on subsistence reef fishing, according 2019 data from the World Bank. Following the eruption, the Tongan government said it would seek $240 million for recovery, including improving food security. In the immediate aftermath, the World Bank provided $8 million.
“In terms of recovery plan … we are awaiting for funds to cover expenditure associated with small-scale fisheries along coastal communities,” said Poasi Ngaluafe, head of the science division of Tonga’s Ministry of Fisheries.
SILENT REEFS
The vast majority of Tongan territory is ocean, with its exclusive economic zone extending across nearly 700,000 square kilometres (270,271 square miles) of water. While commercial fisheries contribute only 2.3% to the national economy, subsistence fishing is considered crucial in making up a staple of the Tongan diet.
The U.N.’s Food and Agricultural Organization estimated in a November report that the eruption cost the country’s fisheries and aquaculture sector some $7.4 million – a significant number for Tonga’s roughly $500 million economy. The losses were largely due to damaged fishing vessels, with nearly half of that damage in the small-scale fisheries sector, though some commercial vessels were also affected.
Because the Tongan government does not closely track subsistence fishing, it is difficult to estimate the eruption’s impact on fish harvests.
But scientists say that, apart from some fish stocks likely being depleted, there are other troubling signs that suggest it could take a long time for fisheries to recover.
Young corals are failing to mature in the coastal waters around the eruption site, and many areas once home to healthy and abundant reefs are now barren, according to the government’s August survey.
It is likely volcanic ash smothered many reefs, depriving fish of feeding areas and spawning beds. The survey found that no marine life had survived near the volcano.
Meanwhile, the tsunami that swelled in the waters around the archipelago knocked over large boulder corals, creating fields of coral rubble. And while some reefs survived, the crackling, snapping and popping noises of foraging shrimp and fish, a sign of a healthy environment, were gone.
“The reefs in Tonga were silent,” the survey report found.
FARMING REPRIEVE
Agriculture has proved a lifeline to Tongans facing empty waters and damaged boats. Despite concerns that the volcanic ash, which blanketed 99% of the country, would make soils too toxic to grow crops, “food production has resumed with little impacts,” said Siosiua Halavatu, a soil scientist speaking on behalf of the Tongan government.
Soil tests revealed that the fallen ash was not harmful for humans. And while yam and sweet potato plants perished during the eruption, and fruit trees were burned by falling ash, they began to recover once the ash was washed away.
“We have supported recovery works through land preparation, and planting backyard gardening and roots crops in the farms, as well as export crops like watermelon and squash,” Halavatu told Reuters.
But long-term monitoring will be critical, he said, and Tonga hopes to develop a national soil strategy and upgrade their soil testing laboratory to help farmers.
SKY WATER
Scientists are also now taking stock of the eruption’s impact on the atmosphere. While volcanic eruptions on land eject mostly ash and sulfur dioxide, underwater volcanos jettison far more water.
Tonga’s eruption was no different, with the blast’s white-grayish plume reaching 57 kilometers (35.4 miles) and injecting 146 million tonnes of water into the atmosphere.
Water vapor can linger in the atmosphere for up to a decade, trapping heat on Earth’s surface and leading to more overall warming. More atmospheric water vapor can also help deplete ozone, which shields the planet from harmful UV radiation.
“That one volcano increased the total amount of global water in the stratosphere by 10 percent,” said Paul Newman, chief scientist for earth sciences at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. “We’re only now beginning to see the impact of that.”
Reporting by Gloria Dickie in London; Additional reporting by Kirsty Needham; Editing by Katy Daigle and Tomasz Janowski
Our Standards: The Thomson Reuters Trust Principles.
Massive Volcanic Outburst Detected on Jupiter’s Hellish Moon Io : ScienceAlert
The most powerful volcanic eruptions in the Solar System occur not on Earth, but on Io, a sulfurous moon orbiting the planet Jupiter.
And now, researchers from the Planetary Science Institute (PSI) in the US have noticed a recent outburst that’s been surprisingly productive, even for a hellish world like Io.
In the space around Jupiter, a torus of plasma created and fed by Io’s volcanic emissions grew significantly richer between July and September of last year and persisted until December, showing the moon underwent a spate of volcanic activity that released a huge amount of material.
For something that’s just a little bit bigger than Earth’s Moon, Io is an absolute beast of volcanism. It’s bristling with volcanoes, with around 150 of the 400 known volcanoes erupting at any given time, creating vast lakes of molten lava.
This is all down to its relationship with Jupiter: Io orbits on an elliptical path, resulting in variations in the gravitational pull that change the shape of the moon as it swings around the planet.
The other Galilean moons tug on Io too. This creates frictional heating inside Io, which then spews out molten material from its interior.
What happens to the volcanic emissions from Io then has an effect on Jupiter. Because Io has no magnetic field of its own, the sulfur dioxide escapes, forming a torus of plasma that orbits Jupiter.
This is what feeds the permanent ultraviolet auroras that shimmer at Jupiter’s poles – the most powerful auroras in the Solar System.
This complex interplay is fascinating in its own right, of course. But it can also help inform other interactions of a similar nature that may be occurring out there in the broader galaxy.
So PSI astronomer Jeff Morgenthaler has been keeping an eye on Io by using the PSI’s Io Input/Output observatory (IoIO) since 2017.
Jupiter is very big and very bright, so IoIO uses a coronagraphic technique: effectively minimizing the light shining off Jupiter so that Mogenthaler can see the light emitted by other things in the space around it, including the plasma torus.
This is how he sees that Io has a volcanic outburst every year; and how he was able to see that sulfur and sodium were being pumped into the torus in fall of last year.
However, while the quantities were huge, the torus was dimmer than other years. We don’t know what this means, yet, but unraveling it could tell us something new about the fiery dance between Jupiter and Io.
“This could be telling us something about the composition of the volcanic activity that produced the outburst or it could be telling us that the torus is more efficient at ridding itself of material when more material is thrown into it,” Morgenthaler says.
We’ll have to wait to learn more, but with IoIO on the ground and Juno currently orbiting Jupiter, additional information about the plasma torus will be coming in, especially since Juno can measure changes in Jupiter’s plasma environment.
In addition, Juno will be performing a flyby of Io in December 2023, so we’re looking forward to a wealth of information on the smelly yellow moon.
“Juno measurements,” Morgenthaler says, “may be able to tell us if this volcanic outburst had a different composition than previous ones.”
Massive, months-long volcanic eruption roils Jupiter’s moon Io
A massive volcanic eruption has been spotted emerging from Jupiter’s moon Io. The eruption was observed in the Fall of 2022 using the Io Input/Output observatory (IoIO) by Planetary Science Institute (PSI) senior scientist Jeff Morgenthaler.
One of Jupiter’s largest moons, Io is considered to be the solar system’s most volcanic body with its extreme conditions and yearly outbursts of volcanism caused by the tremendous gravitational influence of its parent planet.
The gravity of Jupiter, the solar system’s most massive planet, and that of two of the other large Jovian moons create powerful tidal forces within Io. This stretches and squeezes Io, the innermost of the four large Jovian moons, giving rise to violent volcanic activity.
Related: Io: A guide to Jupiter’s volcanic moon
The PSI-operated IoIO is located near Benson, Arizona, and has been observing monitor volcanic activity on Io since 2017. Using a coronagraphic technique that dims the light coming from Jupiter the instrument is able to image faint gases near the gas giant.
This allowed Morgenthaler to spot the brightening of both sodium in a cloud or “nebula” around Jupiter which began between July and September 2022 and ended just last month.
Ionized sulfur which surrounds Jupiter in a donut-like structure and is referred to as the Io plasma torus also brightened during the Fall of 2022. This was less pronounced however than the brightening of the Io plasma torus seen during previous outbursts.
“This could be telling us something about the composition of the volcanic activity that produced the outburst or it could be telling us that the torus is more efficient at ridding itself of material when more material is thrown into it,” Morgenthaler said in a statement (opens in new tab).
The IoIO observations could be followed up by NASA’s Juno spacecraft which has been orbiting the gas giant since 2016. Juno is set for a close flyby of Io in December 2023 and its instruments are sensitive to plasma around Jupiter.
This plasma can be traced back to Io’s volcanic activity, meaning that Juno could tell astronomers if the volcanic outburst of Fall 2022 had a different chemical makeup than other Io eruptions.
Before Juno can get close enough for such an investigation, however, Morgenthaler is hoping more versions of IoIO could be up and running across the globe.
“One of the exciting things about these observations is that they can be reproduced by almost any small college or ambitious amateur astronomer. Almost all of the parts used to build IoIO are available at a high-end camera shop or telescope store,” Morgenthaler said. “It would be great to see another IoIO come online before Juno gets to Jupiter next December.”
These additional IoIO copies in different global locations could help astronomers continue monitoring the Jovian moon from Earth during gaps enforced by unfavorable weather conditions. More IoIO units could also provide more time to cover Jupiter’s highly dynamic Io plasma torus and sodium nebula.
In addition to studies of Jupiter and the elements surrounding it, IoIO is observing the sodium “tail” that follows Mercury and planets outside the solar system, exoplanets, as they transit the face of their stars.
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Scientists just mapped Hawaii’s volcanic underbelly in stunning detail
For decades, a mysterious swarm of earthquakes has rumbled beneath the small town of Pahala near the southern coast of the island of Hawaii. By 2015, the rate of subterranean trembles had ticked up from about seven to 34 quakes per week. And the year after Kilauea’s 2018 eruption—the largest Hawaii has seen in centuries—the quakes reached a feverish pitch.
Nearly 500 earthquakes shook underneath Pahala every week, and the heightened activity hasn’t let up. “We’re like earthquake central down here,” says Lou Daniele, general manager at Ka’u Coffee Mill in Pahala. “It’s just become a constant part of daily life.”
Now scientists have discovered the source of this geologic ruckus: a stack of interconnected features some 22 to 26 miles underground is slowly swelling with molten rock. As pulses of magma intrude into the pancake-shaped structures, known as sills, a cascade of earthquakes rumbles along their length. These pulsing magmatic roots may even provide a conduit that ushers molten rock toward Kilauea and Mauna Loa, two of the largest and most active volcanoes in the world.
“We were freaking out,” says John Wilding, a graduate researcher at the California Institute of Technology and lead author of a new study describing the geologic features in Science. “No one had ever directly observed magmatic activity at this scale before.”
The researchers used machine learning algorithms to search for earthquakes in seismic data from the Hawaii Volcano Observatory’s network of sensors, picking out trembles so small that previous methods missed them. The result is a stunningly detailed portrait of Hawaii’s fiery underworld, which promises to help scientists sort through the geologic processes that drive the island’s volcanoes.
“This is probably going to be the future for volcano science,” says Matt Burgess, a former seismic analyst in Hawaii who has studied the deep earthquakes below Pahala.
Mysterious rumbles from the deep
The Pahala earthquake swarm has been rumbling since at least 1970. The quakes are located in the mantle, the layer of our planet between the crust and core, and most of them are too small and deep to joggle the surface with much force. Instead, the trembles feel more like a rolling or swaying of the ground. Sometimes Ka’u Coffee’s Daniele only realizes that something’s amiss because ripples appear on the surface of his coffee. But in recent years the rattles beneath Pahala have become relentless.
“The seismicity was just continuing to go up and up,” says Ninfa Bennington, a volcano seismologist with the USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory who has been tracking the recent surge in activity.
Pahala is thought to sit above the head of a searing column of rock, called a hotspot, that built the Hawaiian Islands. As the Pacific Plate shifts across the stationary hotspot, new volcanoes—and eventually new islands—are born. The 15 volcanoes of the Hawaiian islands are the youngest in a chain of more than 129 that the hotspot has created, most of which have fallen silent and are now hidden beneath the waves.
Past studies have identified likely sources of molten rock below the earthquake swarm and suggested that an upward pulse of magma could be driving the deep rattles. Other studies have detailed the shallow volcanic plumbing. But exactly how molten rock flows up from the depths of the mantle isn’t known.
“We’re essentially missing this big piece,” Bennington says.
The swarm of earthquakes was a chance to get a closer look at the island’s fiery underbelly. While earthquakes can come from many sources, magma or fluid moving through cracks generates telltale seismic rumbles. And as the molten rock shifts, it can stress the ground nearby, causing it to crack and shift, which scientists can also spot in the earthquake data.
By plotting all these quakes in three dimensions—a bit like geologic pointillism—scientists have now sketched out a web of subterranean structures where magma may flow toward the surface, charging volcanic eruptions.
A seismic treasure trove
Amid the surge of earthquake activity in Hawaii, Wilding joined geophysicist Zachary Ross’s research group at Caltech. Ross had been developing methods that detect earthquakes using machine learning algorithms, which can pick out surprisingly small quakes and give stunning views into the spidery web of underground fault zones.
The team applied these methods to 3.5 years’ worth of Hawaiian seismic data, recorded between 2019 and 2022. The system identified nearly 200,000 earthquakes of the swarm, illuminating the stacked sill structures in the upper mantle. The extreme detail even allowed the scientists to track magma as it trickled into a sill, kicking off a cascade of quakes.
When Ross first saw the detail of the geologic structures on his computer screen, he was dumbfounded. “It was kind of just like, oh my God, what are we looking at here?” he says. “It’s just shocking.”
He describes the complex of sills as the “gateway into the system,” providing a means to transport magma horizontally away from the area beneath Pahala. These underground features don’t contain empty space, instead representing a weak zone in the rock where magma has intruded and spread as a molten sheet. The complex links up with a zone of fractures that leads to Kilauea as well as an area that the team believes is connected to Mauna Loa.
There may be more than one route that molten rock follows to the surface, Ross says. He speculates that the sills might even be part of a broader layer of structures under the island that shuttles magma to the different volcanic peaks.
The timing of the deep earthquakes is another hint that the sill structures are connected to volcanoes at the surface. The same day Kilauea erupted in 2020, the sills rumbled with quakes. A similar eruption and spike in deep earthquakes happened in 2021, and Wilding says these eruptions may have released pressure in the magmatic plumbing, drawing more molten rock up from the depths.
Magma highways
The latest study opens new windows into our planet’s fiery depths, exciting scientists about what might come next. “My mind was just blown by the incredible richness of the new earthquake catalog that they developed and how much detail it shows,” says volcanologist Diana Roman of Carnegie Science, who was not part of the study team. “I want more.”
She and other researchers are eager for the team to extend the catalog back to 2015 or earlier for an even more detailed look at the system and its series of fiery fits. A longer catalog might also help explain the 2019 surge in earthquakes, which struck after Kilauea’s eruption the year before piped out some 200 billion gallons of lava.
Roman notes that whether the nearby volcanoes directly tap the magma in the sills remains unknown. She and Burgess published a study last year that suggests an indirect link between eruptions and the swarms of deep quakes. The inflation of magma reservoirs deep under Pahala could compress nearby channels of molten rock that lead to Mauna Loa and Kilauea, like squeezing a tube of toothpaste. Or, Roman says, both processes could be at play.
This summer, Bennington and her colleagues plan to deploy an extensive network of seismic sensors across Kilauea to further fill in the subterranean picture. She says the new study has made her particularly keen to look for signs of magma in the proposed pathways connecting the sills and the nearby volcanoes.
“Each study puts a new piece in … the puzzle,” she says. “They add something really amazing here.”
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These pulsing magmatic roots may even provide a conduit that ushers molten rock toward Kilauea and Mauna Loa, two of the largest and most active volcanoes in the world."},"type":"p"},{"id":"faaa490d-ef57-432c-9a9e-87fca9bf8e0a","cntnt":{"src":"https://interactives.natgeofe.com/high-touch/ngm-22-3d-volcano/builds/main/html/_graphic.html","cmsType":"source","ariaLabel":"source","altTxt":"A view of the Big Island rotates to show its underground volcanic roots going down 38 miles.","belowParagraph":true,"envNme":"prod","qryStr":"forceMode=fitt","mrkup":"","placement":"inline"},"type":"inline"},{"id":"html3","cntnt":{"mrkup":""We were freaking out," says John Wilding, a graduate researcher at the California Institute of Technology and lead author of a new study describing the geologic features in Science. "No one had ever directly observed magmatic activity at this scale before.""},"type":"p"},{"id":"html4","cntnt":{"mrkup":"The researchers used machine learning algorithms to search for earthquakes in seismic data from the Hawaii Volcano Observatory's network of sensors, picking out trembles so small that previous methods missed them. The result is a stunningly detailed portrait of Hawaii’s fiery underworld, which promises to help scientists sort through the geologic processes that drive the island’s volcanoes."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html5","cntnt":{"mrkup":""This is probably going to be the future for volcano science," says Matt Burgess, a former seismic analyst in Hawaii who has studied the deep earthquakes below Pahala."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html6","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Mysterious rumbles from the deep"},"type":"h2"},{"id":"html7","cntnt":{"mrkup":"The Pahala earthquake swarm has been rumbling since at least 1970. The quakes are located in the mantle, the layer of our planet between the crust and core, and most of them are too small and deep to joggle the surface with much force. Instead, the trembles feel more like a rolling or swaying of the ground. Sometimes Ka'u Coffee's Daniele only realizes that something's amiss because ripples appear on the surface of his coffee. But in recent years the rattles beneath Pahala have become relentless."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html8","cntnt":{"mrkup":""The seismicity was just continuing to go up and up," says Ninfa Bennington, a volcano seismologist with the USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory who has been tracking the recent surge in activity."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html9","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Pahala is thought to sit above the head of a searing column of rock, called a hotspot, that built the Hawaiian Islands. As the Pacific Plate shifts across the stationary hotspot, new volcanoes—and eventually new islands—are born. The 15 volcanoes of the Hawaiian islands are the youngest in a chain of more than 129 that the hotspot has created, most of which have fallen silent and are now hidden beneath the waves."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html10","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Past studies have identified likely sources of molten rock below the earthquake swarm and suggested that an upward pulse of magma could be driving the deep rattles. Other studies have detailed the shallow volcanic plumbing. But exactly how molten rock flows up from the depths of the mantle isn't known."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html11","cntnt":{"mrkup":""We're essentially missing this big piece," Bennington says."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html12","cntnt":{"mrkup":"The swarm of earthquakes was a chance to get a closer look at the island's fiery underbelly. While earthquakes can come from many sources, magma or fluid moving through cracks generates telltale seismic rumbles. And as the molten rock shifts, it can stress the ground nearby, causing it to crack and shift, which scientists can also spot in the earthquake data."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html13","cntnt":{"mrkup":"By plotting all these quakes in three dimensions—a bit like geologic pointillism—scientists have now sketched out a web of subterranean structures where magma may flow toward the surface, charging volcanic eruptions."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html14","cntnt":{"mrkup":"A seismic treasure trove"},"type":"h2"},{"id":"html15","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Amid the surge of earthquake activity in Hawaii, Wilding joined geophysicist Zachary Ross's research group at Caltech. Ross had been developing methods that detect earthquakes using machine learning algorithms, which can pick out surprisingly small quakes and give stunning views into the spidery web of underground fault zones."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html16","cntnt":{"mrkup":"The team applied these methods to 3.5 years’ worth of Hawaiian seismic data, recorded between 2019 and 2022. The system identified nearly 200,000 earthquakes of the swarm, illuminating the stacked sill structures in the upper mantle. The extreme detail even allowed the scientists to track magma as it trickled into a sill, kicking off a cascade of quakes."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html17","cntnt":{"mrkup":"When Ross first saw the detail of the geologic structures on his computer screen, he was dumbfounded. "It was kind of just like, oh my God, what are we looking at here?" he says. "It's just shocking.""},"type":"p"},{"id":"html18","cntnt":{"mrkup":"He describes the complex of sills as the "gateway into the system," providing a means to transport magma horizontally away from the area beneath Pahala. These underground features don't contain empty space, instead representing a weak zone in the rock where magma has intruded and spread as a molten sheet. The complex links up with a zone of fractures that leads to Kilauea as well as an area that the team believes is connected to Mauna Loa."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html19","cntnt":{"mrkup":"There may be more than one route that molten rock follows to the surface, Ross says. He speculates that the sills might even be part of a broader layer of structures under the island that shuttles magma to the different volcanic peaks."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html20","cntnt":{"mrkup":"The timing of the deep earthquakes is another hint that the sill structures are connected to volcanoes at the surface. The same day Kilauea erupted in 2020, the sills rumbled with quakes. A similar eruption and spike in deep earthquakes happened in 2021, and Wilding says these eruptions may have released pressure in the magmatic plumbing, drawing more molten rock up from the depths."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html21","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Magma highways "},"type":"h2"},{"id":"html22","cntnt":{"mrkup":"The latest study opens new windows into our planet's fiery depths, exciting scientists about what might come next. "My mind was just blown by the incredible richness of the new earthquake catalog that they developed and how much detail it shows," says volcanologist Diana Roman of Carnegie Science, who was not part of the study team. "I want more.""},"type":"p"},{"id":"html23","cntnt":{"mrkup":"She and other researchers are eager for the team to extend the catalog back to 2015 or earlier for an even more detailed look at the system and its series of fiery fits. A longer catalog might also help explain the 2019 surge in earthquakes, which struck after Kilauea's eruption the year before piped out some 200 billion gallons of lava."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html24","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Roman notes that whether the nearby volcanoes directly tap the magma in the sills remains unknown. She and Burgess published a study last year that suggests an indirect link between eruptions and the swarms of deep quakes. The inflation of magma reservoirs deep under Pahala could compress nearby channels of molten rock that lead to Mauna Loa and Kilauea, like squeezing a tube of toothpaste. Or, Roman says, both processes could be at play."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html25","cntnt":{"mrkup":"This summer, Bennington and her colleagues plan to deploy an extensive network of seismic sensors across Kilauea to further fill in the subterranean picture. She says the new study has made her particularly keen to look for signs of magma in the proposed pathways connecting the sills and the nearby volcanoes."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html26","cntnt":{"mrkup":""Each study puts a new piece in … the puzzle," she says. "They add something really amazing here.""},"type":"p"}],"cid":"drn:src:natgeo:unison::prod:1c645103-338a-4d48-af90-691b1eae087d","cntrbGrp":[{"contributors":[{"displayName":"Maya Wei-Haas"}],"title":"By","rl":"Writer"}],"mode":"richtext","enableAds":true,"endbug":true,"hsImmrsvLd":true,"isMetered":true,"isUserAuthed":false,"mdDt":"2022-12-22T19:07:16.336Z","readTime":"8 min read","schma":{"athrs":[{"name":"Maya Wei-Haas"}],"cnnicl":"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/scientists-mapped-hawaiis-volcanic-underbelly-in-stunning-detail","kywrds":"kilauea, mauna loa, pahala, sill","lg":"https://assets-cdn.nationalgeographic.com/natgeo/static/default.NG.logo.dark.jpg","pblshr":"National Geographic","abt":"Volcanoes","sclDsc":"A groundbreaking seismic study has uncovered a vast web of magma reservoirs some 25 miles beneath Hawaii. "My mind was just blown."","sclImg":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/55888d38-e498-425f-879f-1e2db4fb28dc/F0G935_16x9.jpg?w=1200","sclTtl":"Scientists just mapped Hawaii’s volcanic underbelly in stunning detail"},"sctn":"Science","shrURLs":{"fbIcon":"facebook","fb":"https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fscientists-mapped-hawaiis-volcanic-underbelly-in-stunning-detail","fbAriaLabel":"article.facebookShare.ariaLabel","fbLabel":"article.facebookShare.label","fbButtonTracking":{"event_name":"share","share_content_type":"article","content_title":"scientists just mapped hawaii’s volcanic underbelly in stunning detail","share_method":"facebook"},"emailIcon":"email__filled","email":"mailto:?subject=Scientists%20just%20mapped%20Hawaii%E2%80%99s%20volcanic%20underbelly%20in%20stunning%20detail&body=A%20groundbreaking%20seismic%20study%20has%20uncovered%20a%20vast%20web%20of%20magma%20reservoirs%20some%2025%20miles%20beneath%20Hawaii.%20%22My%20mind%20was%20just%20blown.%22%26nbsp%3B%0A%0Ahttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fscientists-mapped-hawaiis-volcanic-underbelly-in-stunning-detail","emailLabel":"Email","emailButtonTracking":{"event_name":"share","share_content_type":"article","content_title":"scientists just mapped hawaii’s volcanic underbelly in stunning detail","share_method":"email"},"twitter":"https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fscientists-mapped-hawaiis-volcanic-underbelly-in-stunning-detail&text=Scientists%20just%20mapped%20Hawaii%E2%80%99s%20volcanic%20underbelly%20in%20stunning%20detail&via=NatGeo","twitterLabel":"Tweet","twitterButtonTracking":{"event_name":"share","share_content_type":"article","content_title":"scientists just mapped hawaii’s volcanic underbelly in stunning detail","share_method":"twitter"}},"wrdcnt":1412,"pbDt":"2022-12-22T19:00:32.607Z","dt":"2022-12-22T19:00:32.607Z"}]}],"cmsType":"ArticleBodyFrame"},{"id":"email-sticky-footer-frame1"},{"id":"paywall-meter-frame1"},{"id":"paywall-frame1"},{"id":"natgeo-web-template-readthisnext-frame","mods":[{"id":"natgeo-web-template-readthisnext-module","cmsType":"RecirculationGridModule","itemTruncate":{"description":4,"title":4},"contentList":[{"description":"Long before a clever marketer turned it into a Christmas staple, the Aztec and Maya celebrated the colorful shrub for its medicinal value.","img":{"crps":[{"nm":"raw","aspRto":1.3333333333333333,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/120b0f2b-5319-4e9d-a285-8cc4926aa95c/R9938K.jpg"},{"nm":"16x9","aspRto":1.7777777777777777,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/120b0f2b-5319-4e9d-a285-8cc4926aa95c/R9938K_16x9.jpg"},{"nm":"3x2","aspRto":1.5,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/120b0f2b-5319-4e9d-a285-8cc4926aa95c/R9938K_3x2.jpg"},{"nm":"square","aspRto":1,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/120b0f2b-5319-4e9d-a285-8cc4926aa95c/R9938K_square.jpg"},{"nm":"2x3","aspRto":0.6666666666666666,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/120b0f2b-5319-4e9d-a285-8cc4926aa95c/R9938K_2x3.jpg"},{"nm":"3x4","aspRto":0.75,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/120b0f2b-5319-4e9d-a285-8cc4926aa95c/R9938K_3x4.jpg"},{"nm":"4x3","aspRto":1.3333333333333333,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/120b0f2b-5319-4e9d-a285-8cc4926aa95c/R9938K_4x3.jpg"},{"nm":"2x1","aspRto":2,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/120b0f2b-5319-4e9d-a285-8cc4926aa95c/R9938K_2x1.jpg"}],"rt":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/120b0f2b-5319-4e9d-a285-8cc4926aa95c/R9938K","src":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/120b0f2b-5319-4e9d-a285-8cc4926aa95c/R9938K.jpg","altText":"Poinsettias in front of a Cathedral in Mexico","crdt":"Photograph by Carrie Thompson, Alamy Stock Photo","dsc":"Mexico City Zocalo at Christmas with Poinsettias and the Cathedral","ext":"jpg","ratio":"3x2"},"isFeatured":true,"sections":[{"name":"History & Culture","id":"b0c8dd52-23a8-34c0-a940-f46792bc9e70","type":"sources","uri":"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history"}],"headline":"How the rugged poinsettia became our favorite holiday flower","link":"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/aztec-mexico-shrub-holiday-christmas-flower-poinsettia"},{"description":"Celebrated on December 26, this British holiday was likely inspired by one of several charitable traditions. 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NASA spacecraft heads for the most volcanic place in the solar system
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CNN
—
A NASA spacecraft is gearing up for the first of a series of close encounters with the most volcanic place in the solar system. The Juno spacecraft will fly by Jupiter’s moon Io on Thursday, December 15.
The maneuver will be one of nine flybys of Io made by Juno over the next year and a half. Two of the encounters will be from a distance of just 930 miles (1,500 kilometers) away from the moon’s surface.
Juno captured a glowing infrared view of Io on July 5 from 50,000 miles (80,000 kilometers) away. The brightest spots in that image correspond with the hottest temperatures on Io, which is home to hundreds of volcanoes — some of which can send lava fountains dozens of miles high.
Scientists will use Juno’s observations of Io to learn more about that network of volcanoes and how its eruptions interact with Jupiter. The moon is constantly tugged by Jupiter’s massive gravitational pull.
“The team is really excited to have Juno’s extended mission include the study of Jupiter’s moons. With each close flyby, we have been able to obtain a wealth of new information,” said Scott Bolton, Juno principal investigator at the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio, in a statement.
“Juno sensors are designed to study Jupiter, but we’ve been thrilled at how well they can perform double duty by observing Jupiter’s moons.”
The spacecraft recently captured a new image of Jupiter’s northernmost cyclone on September 29. Jupiter’s atmosphere is dominated by hundreds of cyclones, and many cluster at the planet’s poles.
The Juno spacecraft has been orbiting Jupiter since 2016 to uncover details more about the giant planet and is focused on performing flybys of Jupiter’s moons during the extended part of its mission, which began last year and is expected to last through the end of 2025.
Juno flew by Jupiter’s moon Ganymede in 2021, followed by Europa earlier this year. The spacecraft used its instruments to look beneath the icy crust of both moons and gathered data about Europa’s interior, where a salty ocean is thought to exist.
INTERACTIVE: Explore where the search for life is unfolding in our solar system
The ice shell that makes up Europa’s surface is between 10 and 15 miles (16 and 24 kilometers) thick, and the ocean it likely sits atop is estimated to be 40 to 100 miles (64 to 161 kilometers) deep.
The data and images captured by Juno could help inform two separate missions heading to Jupiter’s moons in the next two years: the European Space Agency’s JUpiter ICy moons Explorer and NASA’s Europa Clipper mission.
The first, expected to launch in April 2023, will spend three years exploring Jupiter and three of its icy moons — Ganymede, Callisto and Europa — in depth. All three moons are thought to have oceans beneath their ice-covered crusts, and scientists want to explore whether Ganymede’s ocean is potentially habitable.
Europa Clipper will launch in 2024 to perform a dedicated series of 50 flybys around the moon after arriving in 2030. Eventually transitioning from an altitude of 1,700 miles (2,736 kilometers) to just 16 miles (26 kilometers) above the moon’s surface, Europa Clipper may be able to help scientists determine whether an interior ocean truly exists there and if the moon could support life.
Massive eruption from icy volcanic comet detected in solar system
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A bizarre, volcanic comet has violently erupted, spewing out more than 1 million tons of gas, ice and the “potential building blocks of life” into the solar system.
The volatile comet, known as 29P/Schwassmann-Wachmann (29P), is around 37 miles (60 kilometers) wide and takes around 14.9 years to orbit the sun. 29P is believed to be the most volcanically active comet in the solar system. It is one of around 100 comets, known as “centaurs,” that have been pushed from the Kuiper Belt — a ring of icy comets that lurk beyond Neptune — into a closer orbit around the sun between those of Jupiter and Neptune, according to NASA (opens in new tab).
On Nov. 22, an amateur astronomer named Patrick Wiggins noticed that 29P had drastically increased in brightness, according to Spaceweather.com (opens in new tab). Subsequent observations made by other astronomers revealed that this spike in luminosity was the result of a massive volcanic eruption — the second largest seen on 29P in the last 12 years, according to the British Astronomical Association (opens in new tab) (BAA). The largest eruption during this time was a huge outburst in September 2021.
An eruption of this size is “pretty rare,” Cai Stoddard-Jones (opens in new tab), a doctoral candidate at Cardiff University in the U.K. who took a follow-up image of 29P’s eruption, told Live Scence. “It’s [also] difficult to say why this one is so big.”.
The explosion was followed by two smaller outbursts on Nov. 27 and Nov. 29, according to BAA.
Related: Watch the biggest-ever comet outburst spray dust across the cosmos
Unlike volcanoes on Earth, which eject scalding-hot magma and ash from the mantle, 29P spits out extremely cold gases and ice from its core. This unusual type of volcanic activity is known as cryovolcanism, or “cold volcanism.”
Cryovolcanic bodies, which include a handful of other comets and moons in the solar system such as Saturn’s Enceladus, Jupiter’s Europa and Neptune’s Triton, have a surface crust surrounding a mainly solid icy core, Richard Miles (opens in new tab), a BAA astronomer who has studied 29P, told Live Science. Over time, radiation from the sun can cause the comets’ icy interiors to sublime from solid to gas, which causes a buildup of pressure beneath the crust. When radiation from the sun also weakens the crust, that pressure causes the outer shell to crack, and cryomagma shoots out into space.
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The cryomagma from comets like 29P is mainly composed of carbon monoxide and nitrogen gas, as well as some icy solids and liquid hydrocarbons, which “may have provided some of the raw materials from which life originated on Earth,” NASA representatives wrote.
The ejecta from the most recent eruption of 29P stretched up to 34,800 miles (56,000 km) away from the comet and is traveling at speeds of up to 805 mph (1,295 km/h), according to BAA. The plume “probably comprised more than one million tons of ejecta,” Miles added.
Photographs of the erupting comet also show that the plume formed an irregular Pac-Man-like shape, which suggests the eruption originated from a single point or region on the comet’s surface, according to Spaceweather.com.
These observations back up previous research that suggests 29P’s eruptions are linked to its rotation. Miles and Stoddard-Jones believe that the comet’s slower rotation causes solar radiation to absorb more unevenly on the comet, triggering the eruptions. So far eruptions from the comet tend to match up with its 57-day rotation period, the researchers said.
Related: Volcanic eruptions on the moon happened much more recently than we thought
Researchers also suspect that 29P’s most explosive eruptions follow a cycle based on its orbit around the sun. A number of large eruptions were detected between 2008 and 2010, and now two massive explosions have occurred within the last two years, Miles said. It is therefore likely that there will be least one more major eruption from 29P by the end of 2023, he added.
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However, it is less clear how this longer eruption cycle is occurring, because unlike most other comets, which get closer to the sun during a specific period of their orbits, 29P has a largely circular orbit, meaning it never gets much closer to the sun than its average distance, Stoddard-Jones said.
29P has largely been ignored by the astronomical community since its discovery in 1927, but as new evidence emerges about its unusual volcanic activity it is starting to be taken more seriously, Miles said. “Clearly there is something new to be discovered in studying 29P.”
The James Webb Space Telescope is scheduled to take a closer look at 29P early next year, he added.
Vast volcanic eruptions may have turned Venus into hell
Massive global volcanism that covered 80% of Venus’ surface in lava may have been the deciding factor that transformed Venus from a wet and mild world into the suffocating, sulfuric, hellish planet that it is today.
The surface temperature on Venus is a sweltering 867 degrees Fahrenheit (464 degrees Celsius), hot enough to melt lead, and there’s a crushing pressure of 90 atmospheres underneath the dense clouds of carbon dioxide laced with corroding sulfuric acid. Often decried as Earth‘s “evil twin,” Venus is a victim of a runaway greenhouse effect, no doubt amplified by Venus being about 25 million miles (40 million kilometers) closer to the sun than Earth and therefore receiving more heat.
Yet, there’s growing evidence that Venus wasn’t always this way, and could have once been a temperate world somewhat similar to Earth — perhaps more recently, in geological terms, than expected.
Related: NASA’s Parker Solar Probe captures stunning Venus photo during close flyby
Michael Way, of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, has led much of the research developing this new vision of Venus. In their latest paper, he and his team argue that Venus’ volcanism could have ultimately been what pushed the planet over the edge by sending vast amounts of carbon dioxide — as we know, a potent greenhouse gas — billowing into Venus’ atmosphere.
In the 1990s, NASA’s Magellan spacecraft radar-mapped the surface of Venus, which is otherwise obscured by the planet’s dense atmosphere, and found that much of the surface was covered in volcanic basalt rock. Such “large igneous provinces” are the result of tens of thousands, if not hundreds of thousands of years’ worth of massive volcanism that occurred at some point in the past billion years.
In particular, several of these events coming in the space of a million years, perhaps, and each covering hundreds of thousands of square miles or kilometers in lava, could have endowed Venus’ atmosphere with so much carbon dioxide that the climate would have been unable to cope. Any oceans would have boiled away, adding moisture to the atmosphere, and because water vapor is also a greenhouse gas, accelerating the runaway greenhouse effect. Over time, the water would have been lost to space, but the carbon dioxide, and the inhospitable world, remained.
“While we’re not yet sure how often the events which created these fields occurred, we should be able to narrow it down by studying Earth’s own history,” Way said in a statement.
The frequency with which massive volcanic events forming large igneous provinces have occurred on Earth implies that it is likely that several such events could have occurred on Venus within a million years. These incidents could have scarred Venus forever.
Earth itself has had some close calls. So-called “super-volcanoes” have been connected to numerous mass-extinction events on Earth over the past half-a-billion years. For example, the Late Devonian era mass extinction 370 million years ago has been attributed by some to super-volcanism in what is now Russia and Siberia, as well as to a separate super-volcanic eruption in Australia. The Triassic–Jurassic mass extinction is widely blamed on the formation of the biggest of Earth’s large igneous provinces, the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, 200 million years ago. Even the death of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago may have been caused by the double whammy of an asteroid strike and super-volcanism in the Deccan Traps, a large igneous province in India.
For unknown reasons, similar volcanic events on Venus were much more widespread and instigated a runaway greenhouse effect that transformed the planet. Meanwhile on Earth, the carbon-silicate cycle that acts as the planet’s natural thermostat, exchanging carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases between the mantle and the atmosphere over millions of years, was able to prevent Earth from following the same path as Venus.
Two future NASA missions will endeavor to answer some of these questions. DAVINCI, the Deep Atmosphere Venus Investigation of Noble Gases, Chemistry and Imaging mission will launch later this decade, to be followed by VERITAS, the Venus Emissivity, Radio Science, InSAR, Topography and Spectroscopy mission in the early 2030s. The European Space Agency’s EnVision mission also targets launch sometime in the 2030s, while China has proposed a possible mission called VOICE, the Venus Volcano Imaging and Climate Explorer, that if launched would reach Venus in 2027 to study the planet’s atmosphere and geology.
“A primary goal of DAVINCI is to narrow down the history of water on Venus and when it may have disappeared, providing more insight into how Venus’ climate has changed over time,” Way said.
The findings were published in the Planetary Science Journal earlier this year.
Follow Keith Cooper on Twitter @21stCenturySETI. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook.
Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai Eruption Released The Highest Volcanic Plume Ever Recorded : ScienceAlert
A spectacular and explosive volcanic eruption in January 2022 produced the highest plume of steam and ash in recorded history.
The towering column that arose from Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai reached a tremendous altitude of 57 kilometers (35 miles) above sea level.
That height makes it the first-ever volcanic eruption seen to have punched completely through the stratosphere to breach the mesosphere.
“It’s an extraordinary result as we have never seen a cloud of any type this tall before,” says atmospheric scientist Simon Proud of Oxford University.
This maybe oughtn’t to be a surprise: The eruption was one of the largest volcanic eruptions humanity has ever seen. But measuring the height of its plume with accuracy took some clever detective work.
The height of a volcanic plume is usually estimated based on the temperature profile measured by satellites taking infrared observations. Since thermal emission, or heat, produces infrared radiation, these satellites can detect volcanic plumes.
As plumes extend through the troposphere (that’s the atmospheric layer closest to Earth, the one we live in), they lose heat, so the temperature of the top of the plume can be used to estimate height.
However, once the plume reaches the stratosphere, at an average altitude of around 12 kilometers, this strategy loses accuracy because the temperature profile of the plume changes again, this time becoming warmer. So, a team of researchers led by Proud took a different approach.
The researchers still relied on data from satellites, but the measurement was based on parallax. If you’ve ever closed one eye after another and watched objects close to you seem to shift from side to side compared to their background, you’ve seen parallax in action.
It’s the difference between the apparent position of two objects seen along different lines of sight, and it’s the basis of depth perception in binocular vision. Our brain processes the information from each eye and works out the distance to objects in view. We can use parallax to calculate all sorts of distances.
To obtain parallax measurements of the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai eruption, the researchers used data from three geostationary weather satellites that observed the event from different positions in low-Earth orbit, taking images every 10 minutes.
From this, Proud and his team calculated that the plume reached a 57-kilometer altitude. Interestingly, this is very close to the 58-kilometer altitude NASA scientists calculated back in January using data from two geostationary satellites.
Previously, the highest volcanic plume on record was Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines; its 1991 eruption produced a plume that extended up to 40 kilometers in altitude.
The much greater height of the Hunga-Tonga plume, however, is a little baffling, given the Mount Pinatubo eruption was similar in strength: Both eruptions registered as a 6 on the volcanic explosivity index (VEI) scale.
There’s an easy answer to this one, however. If the Hunga-Tonga plume had been measured using the Mount Pinatubo techniques, the maximum height would have been set at around 39 kilometers.
Even if Mount Pinatubo’s plume reached higher than measured, though, we still don’t know what the mechanisms are for reaching that altitude. So that could be a fun topic to explore.
We also don’t know how a volcanic plume of that height would affect the mesosphere; since no other volcanic plume has been observed reaching that high, the effects have only been indirect.
A hazy substance was observed at the top of the Hunga-Tonga plume; what that is, and how long it will hang around up there, are unknown.
This means there’s more work to be done to help us understand this fascinating and devastating event.
“We’d also like to apply this technique to other eruptions and develop a dataset of plume heights that can be used by volcanologists and atmospheric scientists to model the dispersion of volcanic ash in the atmosphere,” says atmospheric physicist Andrew Prata of Oxford University.
“Further science questions that we would like to understand are: Why did the Tonga plume go so high? What will be the climate impacts of this eruption? And what exactly was the plume composed of?”
The research has been published in Science.