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Surprising Phenomena Observed by NASA’s NuSTAR in Brightest Cosmic Explosion Ever Detected – SciTechDaily
- Surprising Phenomena Observed by NASA’s NuSTAR in Brightest Cosmic Explosion Ever Detected SciTechDaily
- Largest explosion since the Big Bang was powered by a bizarre energy jet unlike any other Livescience.com
- Brightest cosmic explosion on record is even weirder than first thought Business Insider
- Recording the entire process of a tera-electron volt gamma-ray burst during the death of a massive star Phys.org
- Brightest Cosmic Burst Since The Big Bang Observed And There’s Something Strange Going On Giant Freakin Robot
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Doomed Pair Closer Than Ever Observed
An artist’s impression of two black holes that are about to collide.
New observations and analysis reveal two Goliath black holes just 750 light-years apart and closing, as they circle each other in the aftermath of a galaxy merger.
Astronomers from Flatiron Institute and their colleagues have spotted two ghostly Goliaths en route to a cataclysmic meeting. The newfound pair of supermassive black holes are the closest to colliding ever seen, the astronomers announced on January 9 at an American Astronomical Society meeting in Seattle and in a paper published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters.
While close together in cosmological terms at just 750 light-years apart, the supermassive black holes won’t merge for a few hundred million years. In the meantime, the astronomers’ discovery provides a better estimate of how many supermassive black holes are also nearing collision in the universe.
This artist’s conception shows a late-stage galaxy merger and its two newly-discovered central black holes. The binary black holes are the closest together ever observed in multiple wavelengths. Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO); M. Weiss (NRAO/AUI/NSF)
That improved head count will aid scientists in listening for the universe-wide chorus of intense ripples in space-time known as
The short distance between the newly discovered black holes “is fairly close to the limit of what we can detect, which is why this is so exciting,” says study co-author Chiara Mingarelli, an associate research scientist at the Flatiron Institute’s Center for Computational Astrophysics in New York City.
Due to the small separation between the black holes, the astronomers could only differentiate between the two objects by combining many observations from seven telescopes, including 
Telescope observations of two newly discovered supermassive black holes on a collision course. Their host galaxy, left, is a mash-up of two galaxies that have collided. The pink box shows the location of the supermassive black holes. Close observation of the pair, right, reveals two distinct black holes (white spots) only 750 light-years apart. Credit: M.J. Koss et al.
The astronomers found the pair quickly once they started looking, which means that close-together supermassive black holes “are probably more common than we think, given that we found these two and we didn’t have to look very far to find them,” Mingarelli says.
The newly identified supermassive black holes inhabit a mash-up of two galaxies that collided around 480 million light-years away from Earth. Gargantuan black holes live in the heart of most galaxies, growing bigger by gobbling up surrounding gas, dust, stars, and even other black holes. The two supermassive black holes identified in this study are true heavyweights: They clock in at 200 million and 125 million times the mass of our sun.
The black holes met as their host galaxies smashed into each other. Eventually they will begin circling each other, with the orbit tightening as gas and stars pass between the two black holes and steal orbital energy. Ultimately the black holes will start producing gravitational waves far stronger than any that have previously been detected, before crashing into each other to form one jumbo-size 
This artist’s conception shows a late-stage galaxy merger and its two newly-discovered central black holes. The binary black holes are the closest together ever observed in multiple wavelengths. Credit:
“It’s important that with all these different images, you get the same story — that there are two black holes,” says Mingarelli, when comparing this new multi-observation research with previous efforts. “This is where other studies [of close-proximity supermassive black holes] have fallen down in the past. When people followed them up, it turned out that there was just one black hole. [This time we] have many observations, all in agreement.”
Schematic representation of the most important stages and critical physical mechanisms driving the merger of two supermassive black holes and their corresponding representative time and spatial scales. Credit: José Utreras/Ezequiel Treister, Center for Astrophysics and Associated Technologies (CATA); Michael Koss (Eureka Scientific), et al.
She and Flatiron Institute visiting scientist Andrew Casey-Clyde used the new observations to estimate the universe’s population of merging supermassive black holes, finding that it “may be surprisingly high,” Mingarelli says. They predict that an abundance of supermassive black-hole pairs exists, generating a major amount of ultra-strong gravitational waves. All that clamor should result in a loud gravitational-wave background far easier to detect than if the population were smaller. The first ever detection of the background babble of gravitational waves, therefore, may come “very soon,” Mingarelli says.
Reference: “UGC 4211: A Confirmed Dual Active Galactic Nucleus in the Local Universe at 230 pc Nuclear Separation” by Michael J. Koss, Ezequiel Treister, Darshan Kakkad, J. Andrew Casey-Clyde, Taiki Kawamuro, Jonathan Williams, Adi Foord, Benny Trakhtenbrot, Franz E. Bauer, George C. Privon, Claudio Ricci, Richard Mushotzky, Loreto Barcos-Munoz, Laura Blecha, Thomas Connor, Fiona Harrison, Tingting Liu, Macon Magno, Chiara M. F. Mingarelli, Francisco Muller-Sanchez, Kyuseok Oh, T. Taro Shimizu, Krista Lynne Smith, Daniel Stern, Miguel Parra Tello and C. Megan Urry, 9 January 2023, The Astrophysical Journal Letters.
DOI: 10.3847/2041-8213/aca8f0
Magma Beneath a Long-Dormant Volcano Has Been Observed Moving Upwards
Don’t worry, an eruption is not imminent.
Research reveals magma activity beneath Mount Edgecumbe.
According to a recent study from the Alaska Volcano Observatory, magma underneath the long-dormant Mount Edgecumbe volcano in Southeast Alaska has been moving upward through the Earth’s crust.
The observatory’s innovative method may enable early identification of volcanic activity in Alaska. According to computer modeling based on satellite data, magma at Mount Edgecumbe is rising from a depth of approximately 12 miles to around 6 miles, causing substantial surface deformation and earthquakes.
“That’s the fastest rate of volcanic deformation that we currently have in Alaska,” said the research paper’s lead author, Ronni Grapenthin, a University of Alaska Fairbanks associate professor of geodesy. “And while it is not uncommon for volcanoes to deform, the activity at Edgecumbe is unusual because reactivation of dormant volcanic systems is rarely observed,” he said.
According to Grapenthin, an eruption is not imminent. Researchers from the UAF Geophysical Institute and the U.S. Geological Survey recently published their findings in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.
The Alaska Volcano Observatory cooperated with another Geophysical Institute unit, the Alaska Satellite Facility, to analyze data in the cloud – a first for the volcano team. Instead of having to download and organize data, which may take weeks or months, researchers can use cloud computing, which uses distant servers to store data and provide computing services.
When a series of earthquakes were detected near Mount Edgecumbe on April 11, 2022, the research team got to work. The researchers analyzed ground deformation detected in satellite radar data over the past 7 1/2 years.
Four days later, on April 15, the team had a preliminary result: An intrusion of new magma was causing the earthquakes. A small number of earthquakes began under Edgecumbe in 2020, but the cause was ambiguous until the deformation results were produced.
Additional data processing confirmed the preliminary finding. The Alaska Volcano Observatory informed the public on April 22, less than two weeks after the latest batch of Edgecumbe earthquakes was reported.
“We’ve done these kinds of analyses before, but new streamlined cloud-based workflows cut weeks or months of analysis down to just days,” said David Fee, the Alaska Volcano Observatory’s coordinating scientist at the Geophysical Institute.
Mount Edgecumbe, at 3,200 feet, is on Kruzof Island on the west side of Sitka Sound. It is part of the Mount Edgecumbe Volcanic Field, which includes the domes and crater of adjacent Crater Ridge. Most striking for the researchers was an area of ground uplift on southern Kruzof Island 10.5 miles in diameter and centered 1.5 miles east of the volcano. The upward deformation began abruptly in August 2018 and continued at a rate of 3.4 inches annually, for a total of 10.6 inches through early 2022.
Subsequent computer modeling indicated the cause was the intrusion of new magma. The new deformation-based analysis will allow for earlier detection of volcanic unrest because ground deformation is one of its earliest indicators. Deformation can occur without accompanying seismic activity, making ground uplift a key symptom to watch.
The volcano observatory is applying the new approach to other volcanoes in Alaska, including Trident Volcano, about 30 miles north of Katmai Bay. The volcano is showing signs of elevated unrest. Mount Edgecumbe isn’t showing signs of an imminent eruption, Grapenthin said.
“This magma intrusion has been going on for three-plus years now,” he said. “Prior to an eruption, we expect more signs of unrest: more seismicity, more deformation, and — importantly — changes in the patterns of seismicity and deformation.”
The researchers say the magma is likely reaching an upper chamber through a near-vertical conduit. But they also believe the magma is precluded from moving further upward by thick magma already in the upper chamber.
The new magma is forcing the entire surface up instead. Mount Edgecumbe is 15 miles west of Sitka, which has a population of about 8,500 residents. The volcano last erupted 800 to 900 years ago, as cited in Lingít oral history handed down by Herman Kitka. A group of Tlingits in four canoes had camped on the coast about 15 or 20 miles south of some large smoke plumes, according to the account. A scouting party in a canoe was sent to investigate the smoke and reported: “a mountain blinking, spouting fire and smoke.”
Reference: “Return From Dormancy: Rapid Inflation and Seismic Unrest Driven by Transcrustal Magma Transfer at Mt. Edgecumbe (L’úx Shaa) Volcano, Alaska” by Ronni Grapenthin, Yitian Cheng, Mario Angarita, Darren Tan, Franz J. Meyer, David Fee and Aaron Wech, 10 October 2022, Geophysical Research Letters.
DOI: 10.1029/2022GL099464
The Alaska Volcano Observatory is a joint program of the Geophysical Institute, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys.
Quantum Entanglement Has Now Been Directly Observed at The Macroscopic Scale : ScienceAlert
Quantum entanglement is the binding together of two particles or objects, even though they may be far apart – their respective properties are linked in a way that’s not possible under the rules of classical physics.
It’s a weird phenomenon that Einstein described as “spooky action at a distance”, but its weirdness is what makes it so fascinating to scientists. In a 2021 study, quantum entanglement was directly observed and recorded at the macroscopic scale – a scale much bigger than the subatomic particles normally associated with entanglement.
The dimensions involved are still very small from our perspective – the experiments involved two tiny aluminum drums one-fifth the width of a human hair – but in the realm of quantum physics they’re absolutely huge.
“If you analyze the position and momentum data for the two drums independently, they each simply look hot,” said physicist John Teufel, from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the US, last year.
“But looking at them together, we can see that what looks like random motion of one drum is highly correlated with the other, in a way that is only possible through quantum entanglement.”
While there’s nothing to say that quantum entanglement can’t happen with macroscopic objects, before this it was thought that the effects weren’t noticeable at larger scales – or perhaps that the macroscopic scale was governed by another set of rules.
The recent research suggests that’s not the case. In fact, the same quantum rules apply here, too, and can actually be seen as well. Researchers vibrated the tiny drum membranes using microwave photons and kept them kept in a synchronized state in terms of their position and velocities.
To prevent outside interference, a common problem with quantum states, the drums were cooled, entangled, and measured in separate stages while inside a cryogenically chilled enclosure. The states of the drums are then encoded in a reflected microwave field that works in a similar way to radar.
Previous studies had also reported on macroscopic quantum entanglement, but the 2021 research went further: All of the necessary measurements were recorded rather than inferred, and the entanglement was generated in a deterministic, non-random way.
In a related but separate series of experiments, researchers also working with macroscopic drums (or oscillators) in a state of quantum entanglement have shown how it’s possible to measure the position and momentum of the two drumheads at the same time.
“In our work, the drumheads exhibit a collective quantum motion,” said physicist Laure Mercier de Lepinay, from Aalto University in Finland. “The drums vibrate in an opposite phase to each other, such that when one of them is in an end position of the vibration cycle, the other is in the opposite position at the same time.”
“In this situation, the quantum uncertainty of the drums’ motion is canceled if the two drums are treated as one quantum-mechanical entity.”
What makes this headline news is that it gets around Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle – the idea that position and momentum can’t be perfectly measured at the same time. The principle states that recording either measurement will interfere with the other through a process called quantum back action.
As well as backing up the other study in demonstrating macroscopic quantum entanglement, this particular piece of research uses that entanglement to avoid quantum back action – essentially investigating the line between classical physics (where the Uncertainty Principle applies) and quantum physics (where it now doesn’t appear to).
One of the potential future applications of both sets of findings is in quantum networks – being able to manipulate and entangle objects on a macroscopic scale so that they can power next-generation communication networks.
“Apart from practical applications, these experiments address how far into the macroscopic realm experiments can push the observation of distinctly quantum phenomena,” write physicists Hoi-Kwan Lau and Aashish Clerk, who weren’t involved in the studies, in a commentary on the research published at the time.
Both the first and the second study were published in Science.
A version of this article was first published in May 2021.
First on CNN: European security officials observed Russian Navy ships in vicinity of Nord Stream pipeline explosions
CNN
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European security officials on Monday and Tuesday observed Russian Navy support ships in the vicinity of leaks in the Nord Stream pipelines likely caused by underwater explosions, according two Western intelligence officials and one other source familiar with the matter.
It’s unclear whether the ships had anything to do with those explosions, these sources and others said – but it’s one of the many factors that investigators will be looking into.
Russian submarines were also observed not far from those areas last week, one of the intelligence officials said.
Three US officials said that the US has no thorough explanation yet for what happened, days after the explosions appeared to cause three separate and simultaneous leaks in the two pipelines on Monday.
Russian ships routinely operate in the area, according to one Danish military official, who emphasized that the presence of the ships doesn’t necessarily indicate that Russia caused the damage.
“We see them every week,” this person said. “Russian activities in the Baltic Sea have increased in recent years. They’re quite often testing our awareness – both at sea and in the air.”
But the sightings still cast further suspicion on Russia, which has drawn the most attention from both European and US officials as the only actor in the region believed to have both the capability and motivation to deliberately damage the pipelines.
US officials declined to comment on the intelligence about the ships on Wednesday.
Both Denmark and Sweden are investigating, but a site inspection has yet to be done and details on exactly what caused the explosions remains sketchy. One European official said that there is a Danish government assessment underway and it could take up to two weeks for an investigation to properly begin because the pressure in the pipes makes it difficult to approach the site of the leaks — although another source familiar with the matter said the probe could begin as soon as Sunday.
The prime ministers for both Denmark and Sweden said publicly on Tuesday that the leaks were likely the result of deliberate actions, not accidents, and Sweden’s security service said in a statement Wednesday that it cannot be ruled out “that a foreign power is behind it.” US national security adviser Jake Sullivan on Tuesday evening also called the leaks “apparent sabotage” in a tweet.
But senior Western officials have so far stopped short of attributing the attack to Russia or any other nation.
The Kremlin has publicly denied striking the pipelines. A spokesman called the allegation “predictably stupid and absurd.”
CNN has reached out to the Russian Ministry of Defense for comment on the presence of the ships.
The Danish government is taking the lead on the investigation and has put in place an exclusion area of five nautical miles and a 1 kilometer no-fly-zone, according to European sources familiar with the matter.
Other than Sullivan, US officials have been far more circumspect than their European counterparts in drawing conclusions about the leaks.
“I think many of our partners have determined or believe it is sabotage. I’m not at the point where I can tell you one way or the other,” a senior military official said Wednesday. “The only thing I know there is that we think the water is between 80 and 100 meters [deep] at that location where the pipeline is. Other than that, I don’t know anything more.”
But one senior US official and a US military official both said Russia is still the leading suspect – assuming that the European assessment of deliberate sabotage is borne out – because there are no other plausible suspects with the ability and will to carry out the operation.
“It’s hard to imagine any other actor in the region with the capabilities and interest to carry out such an operation,” the Danish military official said.
Russia has requested a UN Security Council meeting on the damaged pipeline this week – something the senior US official said is also suspicious. Typically, the official said, Russia isn’t organized enough to move so quickly, suggesting that the maneuver was pre-planned.
If Russia did deliberately cause the explosions, it would be effectively sabotaging its own pipelines: Russian state company Gazprom is the majority shareholder in Nord Stream 1 and the sole owner of Nord Stream 2.
But officials familiar with the latest intelligence say that Moscow would likely view such a step as worth the price if it helped raise the costs of supporting Ukraine for Europe. US and western intelligence officials believe Russian President Vladimir Putin is gambling that as electricity costs rise and winter approaches, European publics could turn against the Western strategy of isolating Russia economically. Sabotaging the pipelines could “show what Russia is capable of,” one US official said.
Russia has already taken steps to manipulate energy flows in ways that caused itself economic pain, but also hurt Europe. Russia slashed gas supplies to Europe via Nord Stream 1 before suspending flows altogether in August, blaming Western sanctions for causing technical difficulties. European politicians say that was a pretext to stop supplying gas.
“They’ve already shown they’re perfectly happy to do that,” one of the sources said. “They weight their economic pain against Europe’s.”
The new Nord Stream 2 pipeline had yet to enter commercial operations. The plan to use it to supply gas was scrapped by Germany days before Russia sent troops into Ukraine in February.
US, European and Ukrainian officials have been warning for months, however, that critical infrastructure – not only in Ukraine but also in the US and Europe – could be targeted by Russia as part of its war on Ukraine.
The US warned several European allies over the summer, including Germany, that the Nord Stream 1 and 2 pipelines could face threats and even be attacked, according to two people familiar with the intelligence and the warnings.
The warnings were based on US intelligence assessments, but they were vague, the people said – it was not clear from the warnings who might be responsible for any attacks on the pipelines or when they might occur.
The CIA declined to comment.
Der Spiegel was the first to report on the intelligence warnings.
In a single work week, NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope broke the record for the oldest galaxy ever observed
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James Webb Space Telescope broke the record for the oldest galaxy ever observed by nearly 100 million years.
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Light from the galaxy, known as GLASS-z13, is 13.5 billion years old, dating back to when the universe was young.
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Webb’s instruments could help astronomers see even older, more distant galaxies than this one.
The James Webb Space Telescope, NASA’s new infrared heavyweight, peered into the vast expanse and found a 13.5 billion-year-old galaxy, which researchers believe is the oldest galaxy ever detected. The powerful telescope’s science operations began last week.
The spinning collection of stars, gas, and dust bound together by gravity dates to 300 million years after the Big Bang. This beats the previous record for the most distant and oldest galaxy ever detected by 100 million years, a record which was held by a galaxy known as GN-Z1. When GN-Z1 was spotted by the Hubble Space Telescope in 2016, the galaxy’s light had taken 13.4 billion years to reach Hubble.
Researchers from the Harvard and Smithsonian Center of Astrophysics shared their findings about the new record-holder galaxy, called GLASS-z13, in a duo of preprints published Wednesday. The scientists also identified another galaxy that is roughly the same age, called GLASS-z11, which also trumped previous records.
“We found two very compelling candidates for extremely distant galaxies,” Rohan Naidu, one of the researchers who detected GLASS-z13 in Webb’s data, told New Scientist. “If these galaxies are at the distance we think they are, the universe is only a few hundred million years old at that point.”
Researchers told New Scientist the two galaxies are also relatively small compared to our own Milky Way galaxy, which is 100,000 light-years in diameter. GLASS-z13 is approximately 1,600 light-years wide, while GLASS z-11 is 2,300 light-years.
“With the advent of JWST, we now have an unprecedented view of the universe thanks to the extremely sensitive NIRCam instrument,” researchers explained in the preprint.
It’s still early days for discoveries from the powerful observatory, which launched on Christmas Day in 2021 and began science operations last week.
NASA says Webb is able to peer further and discover galaxies as far back as the first few hundred million years after the Big Bang, helping astronomers understand more about galaxy evolution throughout the entire age of the universe.
Read the original article on Business Insider
Unusual quantum state of matter observed for the first time
2Zr2O7, designed in Andrea Bianchi’s lab. Credit: University of Montreal” width=”503″ height=”530″/>
A sample of the frustrated cerium-based magnet, Ce2Zr2O7, designed in Andrea Bianchi’s lab. Credit: University of Montreal
It’s not every day that someone comes across a new state of matter in quantum physics, the scientific field devoted to describing the behavior of atomic and subatomic particles in order to elucidate their properties.
Yet this is exactly what an international team of researchers that includes Andrea Bianchi, University of Montreal physics professor and researcher at the Regroupement québécois sur les matériaux de pointe, and his students Avner Fitterman and Jérémi Dudemaine has done.
In a recent article published in the scientific journal Physical Review X, the researchers document a “quantum spin liquid ground state” in a magnetic material created in Bianchi’s lab: Ce2Zr2O7, a compound composed of cerium, zirconium and oxygen.
Like a liquid locked inside an extremely cold solid
In quantum physics, spin is an internal property of electrons linked to their rotation. It is spin that gives the material in a magnet its magnetic properties.
In some materials, spin results in a disorganized structure similar to that of molecules in a liquid, hence the expression “spin liquid.”
In general, a material becomes more disorganized as its temperature rises. This is the case, for example, when water turns into steam. But the principal characteristic of spin liquids is that they remain disorganized even when cooled to as low as absolute zero (–273°C).
Spin liquids remain disorganized because the direction of spin continues to fluctuate as the material is cooled instead of stabilizing in a solid state, as it does in a conventional magnet, in which all the spins are aligned.
The art of ‘frustrating’ electrons
Imagine an electron as a tiny compass that points either up or down. In conventional magnets, the electron spins are all oriented in the same direction, up or down, creating what is known as a “ferromagnetic phase.” This is what keeps photos and notes pinned to your fridge.
But in quantum spin liquids, the electrons are positioned in a triangular lattice and form a “ménage à trois” characterized by intense turbulence that interferes with their order. The result is an entangled wave function and no magnetic order.
“When a third electron is added, the electron spins cannot align because the two neighboring electrons must always have opposing spins, creating what we call magnetic frustration,” Bianchi explained. “This generates excitations that maintain the disorder of spins and therefore the liquid state, even at very low temperatures.”
So how did they add a third electron and cause such frustration?
Creating a ménage à trois
Enter the frustrated magnet Ce2Zr2O7 created by Bianchi in his lab. To his already long list of accomplishments in developing advanced materials like superconductors, we can now add “master of the art of frustrating magnets.”
Ce2Zr2O7 is a cerium-based material with magnetic properties. “The existence of this compound was known,” said Bianchi. “Our breakthrough was creating it in a uniquely pure form. We used samples melted in an optical furnace to produce a near-perfect triangular arrangement of atoms and then checked the quantum state.”
It was this near-perfect triangle that enabled Bianchi and his team at UdeM to create magnetic frustration in Ce2Zr2O7. Working with researchers at McMaster and Colorado State universities, Los Alamos National Laboratory and the Max Planck Institute for the Physics of Complex System in Dresden, Germany, they measured the compound’s magnetic diffusion.
“Our measurements showed an overlapping particle function—therefore no Bragg peaks—a clear sign of the absence of classical magnetic order,” said Bianchi. “We also observed a distribution of spins with continuously fluctuating directions, which is characteristic of spin liquids and magnetic frustration. This indicates that the material we created behaves like a true spin liquid at low temperatures.”
From dream to reality
After corroborating these observations with computer simulations, the team concluded that they were indeed witnessing a never-before-seen quantum state.
“Identifying a new quantum state of matter is a dream come true for every physicist,” said Bianchi. “Our material is revolutionary because we are the first to show it can indeed present as a spin liquid. This discovery could open the door to new approaches in designing quantum computers.”
Frustrated magnets in a nutshell
Magnetism is a collective phenomenon in which the electrons in a material all spin in the same direction. An everyday example is the ferromagnet, which owes its magnetic properties to the alignment of spins. Neighboring electrons can also spin in opposite directions. In this case, the spins still have well-defined directions but there is no magnetization. Frustrated magnets are frustrated because the neighboring electrons try to orient their spins in opposing directions, and when they find themselves in a triangular lattice, they can no longer settle on a common, stable arrangement. The result: a frustrated magnet.
Computational sleuthing confirms first 3D quantum spin liquid
More information:
E. M. Smith et al, Case for a U(1)π Quantum Spin Liquid Ground State in the Dipole-Octupole Pyrochlore Ce2Zr2O7, Physical Review X (2022). DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevX.12.021015
E. M. Smith et al, Case for a U(1)π Quantum Spin Liquid Ground State in the Dipole-Octupole Pyrochlore Ce2Zr2O7, Physical Review X (2022). DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevX.12.021015
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Hubble picks up the most distant star yet observed
Enlarge / The string of red dots represents the area of maximum magnification, with the location of Earendel indicated by the white arrow.
We don’t fully understand what the Universe’s first stars looked like. We know they must have formed from hydrogen and helium since most heavier elements were only produced after the stars formed. And we know that the lack of those heavier elements changed the dynamics of star formation in a way that meant the first stars must have been very large. But just how large remains an unanswered question.
Now, researchers are announcing that they might be a step closer to directly observing one of those stars. Thanks to a fortuitous alignment between a distant star and an intervening galaxy cluster, gravitational lensing has magnified an object that was present less than a billion years after the Big Bang. The object is likely to either be a lone star or a compact system of two or three stars. And its discoverers say they have already booked time for follow-on observations with NASA’s latest space telescope.
Gravity’s lens
Lenses work by arranging materials so that light travels on a curved path through them. Gravity, which distorts space-time itself, can perform a similar function, altering space so that light travels a curved path. There have been plenty of examples of the gravitational influences of objects in the foreground creating a lens-like effect, amplifying and/or distorting the light from a more distant object behind them.
This success has prompted the formation of a team called the Reionization Lensing Cluster Survey, or RELICS. The group points space telescopes at large clusters of galaxies in the expectation that the strong gravitational fields there are more likely to create lensing effects. The team is searching for objects that date back to the period of reionization, when light from the first stars started stripping the electrons off the hydrogen in the interstellar material.
Because of the uneven distribution of matter in the natural world, gravitational lenses are uneven and often create funhouse effects and duplicate images. Using these effects, along with information on the distribution of matter in the foreground, it’s possible to make a rough map of where the lensing effects are strongest.
This map can include a “lensing critical curve,” which can be identified because most background objects show up as two images, with one on either side of the curve. But a handful of objects will end up on the curve itself and experience the strongest magnification.
Lone star
As you can see in the image at the top of this article, most of the objects on the lensing critical curve appear to be extended along it, indicating that they’re likely to be larger structures, such as galaxies or star clusters. The exception, noted by the arrow, is WHL0137-LS. The researchers have named it Earendel, the Old English term for the morning star, because it appears to date from the Universe’s morning, about 900 million years after the Big Bang.
Various models of the lensing effects suggest that Earendel is magnified by at least a factor of 1,000—and possibly as much as 40,000. Based on that, it’s possible to set limits on the size of the object being lensed. These limits show that its maximum possible size is smaller than the star clusters we’ve previously identified, meaning that Earendel is likely to be a small star system with three or fewer stars. It could also be a single star.
Even if Earendel is a multi-star system, most of the mass of these systems tends to end up in one of the stars. Working under the assumption that most of what they were looking at was a single star, the researchers inferred its properties based on light that had originally been emitted in the UV range. They found that Earendel may be anywhere from 40 to 500 times the mass of the Sun. It also has only about 10 percent of the heavier elements found in the Sun.
More precise details aren’t possible at the moment. But the researchers indicate that they will use the Webb telescope to determine exactly what type of star it is.
Based on both the estimated time at which Earendel existed and the presence of at least some heavier elements, we can tell that it’s not one of the Universe’s first stars. But during the launch of the Webb, scientists indicated that the telescope will be capable of imaging earlier star populations if they’re also lensed sufficiently.
We’ll be hearing more about this imaging technique in the near future.
Nature, 2022. DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04449-y (About DOIs).
For the first time, wild dolphin observed ‘talking’ with harbor porpoises
On Scotland’s west coast is the Firth of Clyde, a large saltwater inlet home to thousands of harbor porpoises—and one dolphin named Kylie.
Kylie hasn’t been observed with other common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) in at least 14 years—but she’s far from alone. On clear days in the Clyde, visitors to the marina can sometimes see Kylie swimming with harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), cetacean cousins about two-thirds her size.
New research published in Bioacoustics this January suggests Kylie’s ties to porpoises are closer than scientists imagined. While a common dolphin’s vocal repertoire should include a diverse range of clicks, whistles, and pulse calls, Kylie doesn’t whistle. Instead, she “talks” more like harbor porpoises, which communicate using high-pitched bursts of clicks.
The study suggests that she may be communicating with the porpoises, or at least attempting to. It’s part of a growing body of work that illuminates a rich world of interactions between different cetacean species.
“Clearly, species in the wild interact much more than we thought,” says dolphin behavior expert Denise Herzing.
Porpoise code
Years ago, the Clyde’s lone dolphin resident was partial to a buoy at the mouth of a loch called the Kyles of Bute, so locals took to calling her Kylie. But nobody knows where she came from, or exactly why dolphins end up alone, says David Nairn, founder and director of Clyde Porpoise, a local organization devoted to researching and protecting marine mammals. (Kylie hasn’t been sighted in a year, but locals hope she will return soon.)
Some solitary dolphins end up alone after being separated from their natal groups by storms or human activity, or after being orphaned. Others still may simply be less sociable and prefer their privacy, according to a 2019 study on solitary dolphins worldwide.
To learn more about Kylie’s relationship with the porpoises, Nairn borrowed a hydrophone and towed it behind his sailing yacht, the Saorsa. Nairn captured audio of multiple encounters between Kylie and porpoises from 2016 to 2018.
“She definitely identifies as a porpoise,” says Nairn, who trained as an aquatic biologist in college.
Mel Cosentino, then a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow, pored over thousands of ultrasonic cetacean clicks from the recordings.
While dolphins whistle almost constantly, porpoises never do. Instead, they communicate exclusively with what are called narrow-band, high-frequency (NBHF) clicks, with eight to fifteen amplitude peaks at around 130 kilohertz.
“To hear an NBHF click you have to play it about one hundred times slower,” Cosentino says. (When sounds are slowed down, pitch descends. Humans can hear between 20 hertz, roughly equivalent to the lowest pedal on a pipe organ, and 20 kilohertz.)
In the recordings, Cosentino identified lower-frequency clicks standard for common dolphins. But even when Kylie appeared to be alone, Cosentino found clicks with eight or more amplitude peaks at the key 130 kilohertz- mark—the frequency at which porpoises chat. In other words, Kylie talks like a porpoise even when solo. The researchers also found that Kyle never whistles, as other dolphins do.
Cosentino observed that the exchanges between Kylie and the porpoises had the rhythm of a “conversation” between members of the same species—turn-taking with little overlap—though naturally it’s unclear how much meaningful information is relayed in Kylie’s attempts at porpoise clicks.
“It might be me barking to my dog and him barking back,” Cosentino says.
Regardless, this behavior represents “an attempt” at communication that the “porpoises probably recognize,” says Herzing, research director of the Wild Dolphin Project who has studied the behavior of Atlantic spotted dolphins in the Bahamas for more than three decades. Herzing, who wasn’t involved in the study, commends the authors on the clever experimental design in a natural setting.
“The results are tantalizing,” she says. “What’s really telling is that Kylie doesn’t make any whistles, because dolphins always make whistles and porpoises never do.”
One of the greatest challenges of marine bioacoustics is identifying which creatures made what sound, says Laela Sayigh, an associate professor of animal behavior at Hampshire College. “They don’t make any external movement associated with sound, and most of the time you can’t see them anyways,” Sayigh says.
However, Kylie can be distinguished in this case—by her accent. “It still looks like she’s struggling” to get as high-pitched as the porpoises, Cosentino says—the peaks on her clicks aren’t as crisp as they should be, and there are some lower-frequency sounds mixed in with the high notes.
“If they were singers, Kylie would be Pavarotti and the porpoises would be Mariah Carey.”
Cetaceans in captivity are capable vocal mimics, Herzing notes, pointing to killer whales and belugas that mimicked bottlenose dolphin tankmates. And a 2016 bioacoustics study found that a cross-fostered Risso’s dolphin in an Italian marine park whistled more like the bottlenose dolphins it was raised with than wild members of its species.
However, that Kylie makes NBHF-like clicks while alone “draws into question” if she’s clicking to communicate with harbor porpoises or just mimicking the sound, Sayigh says.
Melon-headed conversation
Dolphins, porpoises, and whales are all cetaceans, descendants of land-dwelling mammals that made their way back to the water over millions of years. As they re-adapted to life in the ocean, “evolutionarily, the nostrils became the blowhole,” Cosentino says.
While toothed whales like dolphins and porpoises have only one open nostril, both nasal cavities are still present below the surface, each capped by a muscular structure called “monkey lips.” (Cetacean anatomy is often described in colorful terms, originating from descriptions by whalers). The monkey lips are somewhat analogous to our own vocal cords, controlling airflow—and when air is forced from the lungs through the “lips” on the left nasal cavity “it’s like letting the air out of a balloon,” creating warbling whistles, Cosentino says.
The right nasal cavity is responsible for the clicks used in both communication and navigation. It dead-ends next to a fatty deposit on the toothed whale’s forehead called a melon, which amplifies and focuses the cetacean’s vocalizations. Since both sets of monkey lips operate independently, some cetaceans, including bottlenose dolphins, can click and whistle at the same time—kind of like Mongolian throat-singing. (Learn more: The pioneering science that unlocked the secrets of whale culture.)
Kylie’s story is part of a broad field of research into how cetaceans interact with members of other species. “They’re very social, they’re very sexual, and they’re very communicative,” says Herzing. “These animals survive and adapt socially, and sound is a natural way they do it.”
Well-documented interspecies adoptions also demonstrate that species divisions may not be as clear-cut as once thought. Examples include a Canadian beluga pod that took in a narwhal calf and a spinner dolphin that lived among Tahiti bottlenose for 20 years.
Recent DNA analyses also demonstrate we’ve only scratched the surface of the extent of hybridization, Herzing emphasizes. Bottlenose dolphins have hybridized with at least 10 species in captivity and in the wild, including cetaceans as disparate as the pilot whale and the Guiana dolphin. Researchers hypothesize that cetaceans are able to hybridize so successfully because of their shared DNA—their species diverged only within the past 10 million years.
Besides attempts at communication, Kylie seems close to porpoises in other ways. On multiple occasions, Nairn has seen female porpoises bring their young calves to interact with Kylie. Since porpoise calves usually stick very close to mom until they’re weaned, Nairn was surprised to watch them swim with the dolphin in echelon, a position just behind her pectoral fin that researchers say is the cetacean equivalent to “carrying” a baby, Nairn explains.
Nairn has also observed male porpoises attempting to mount Kylie. But does she entertain their advances? “I would even say she courts, aye,” Nairn admits with a chuckle. Mating is theoretically anatomically possible, although there haven’t been any scientifically documented dolphin-porpoise hybrids, Herzing says.
Ever since a week of intense storms in February 2021 caused a massive drilling ship to become unmoored near her favorite buoy, Kylie has been missing. Nairn says it’s not out of character for her to relocate after a big disturbance to one of her “holiday buoys” elsewhere in the Clyde for months at a stretch, even up to a year, but he can’t help but worry.
Nairn and his colleagues say they’re eager to look—and listen—for Kylie as soon as the spring field season begins—and see what else she might teach us.
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On clear days in the Clyde, visitors to the marina can sometimes see Kylie swimming with harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), cetacean cousins about two-thirds her size."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html2","cntnt":{"mrkup":"New research published in Bioacoustics this January suggests Kylie’s ties to porpoises are closer than scientists imagined. While a common dolphin’s vocal repertoire should include a diverse range of clicks, whistles, and pulse calls, Kylie doesn’t whistle. Instead, she “talks” more like harbor porpoises, which communicate using high-pitched bursts of clicks."},"type":"p"},{"id":"73a5cdd6-4fed-4aca-be5f-98d87d7ee955","cntnt":{"cmsType":"image","hasCopyright":true,"id":"73a5cdd6-4fed-4aca-be5f-98d87d7ee955","lines":3,"positionMetaBottom":true,"showMore":true,"caption":"A view of the Firth of Clyde, a large body of water next to the Scottish Isle of Arran, on a bright winter day.","credit":"Photograph by Jim McDowall, Alamy","image":{"crps":[{"nm":"raw","aspRto":2.195069667738478,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/93969ae7-3beb-46ef-b207-5cbdb711b4f9/2AHWN6E.jpg"},{"nm":"16x9","aspRto":1.7777777777777777,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/93969ae7-3beb-46ef-b207-5cbdb711b4f9/2AHWN6E_16x9.jpg"},{"nm":"3x2","aspRto":1.5,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/93969ae7-3beb-46ef-b207-5cbdb711b4f9/2AHWN6E_3x2.jpg"},{"nm":"square","aspRto":1,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/93969ae7-3beb-46ef-b207-5cbdb711b4f9/2AHWN6E_square.jpg"},{"nm":"2x3","aspRto":0.6666666666666666,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/93969ae7-3beb-46ef-b207-5cbdb711b4f9/2AHWN6E_2x3.jpg"},{"nm":"3x4","aspRto":0.75,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/93969ae7-3beb-46ef-b207-5cbdb711b4f9/2AHWN6E_3x4.jpg"},{"nm":"4x3","aspRto":1.3333333333333333,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/93969ae7-3beb-46ef-b207-5cbdb711b4f9/2AHWN6E_4x3.jpg"},{"nm":"2x1","aspRto":2,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/93969ae7-3beb-46ef-b207-5cbdb711b4f9/2AHWN6E_2x1.jpg"}],"rt":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/93969ae7-3beb-46ef-b207-5cbdb711b4f9/2AHWN6E","src":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/93969ae7-3beb-46ef-b207-5cbdb711b4f9/2AHWN6E.jpg","crdt":"Photograph by Jim McDowall, Alamy","dsc":"The Isle of Arran from Fairlie shore line on a Freezing New Years day looking past the Hunterston Ore Terminal and Jetty on a bright winters day Arran","ext":"jpg","ttl":"2AHWN6E"},"align":"contentWidth","belowParagraph":true,"imageSrc":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/93969ae7-3beb-46ef-b207-5cbdb711b4f9/2AHWN6E_16x9.jpg?w=636&h=358","size":"small"},"type":"inline"},{"id":"html3","cntnt":{"mrkup":"The study suggests that she may be communicating with the porpoises, or at least attempting to. It’s part of a growing body of work that illuminates a rich world of interactions between different cetacean species."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html4","cntnt":{"mrkup":"“Clearly, species in the wild interact much more than we thought,” says dolphin behavior expert Denise Herzing. "},"type":"p"},{"id":"html5","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Porpoise code"},"type":"h2"},{"id":"html6","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Years ago, the Clyde’s lone dolphin resident was partial to a buoy at the mouth of a loch called the Kyles of Bute, so locals took to calling her Kylie. But nobody knows where she came from, or exactly why dolphins end up alone, says David Nairn, founder and director of Clyde Porpoise, a local organization devoted to researching and protecting marine mammals. (Kylie hasn’t been sighted in a year, but locals hope she will return soon.)"},"type":"p"},{"id":"html7","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Some solitary dolphins end up alone after being separated from their natal groups by storms or human activity, or after being orphaned. Others still may simply be less sociable and prefer their privacy, according to a 2019 study on solitary dolphins worldwide."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html8","cntnt":{"mrkup":"To learn more about Kylie’s relationship with the porpoises, Nairn borrowed a hydrophone and towed it behind his sailing yacht, the Saorsa. Nairn captured audio of multiple encounters between Kylie and porpoises from 2016 to 2018."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html9","cntnt":{"mrkup":"“She definitely identifies as a porpoise,” says Nairn, who trained as an aquatic biologist in college."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html10","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Mel Cosentino, then a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow, pored over thousands of ultrasonic cetacean clicks from the recordings."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html11","cntnt":{"mrkup":"While dolphins whistle almost constantly, porpoises never do. Instead, they communicate exclusively with what are called narrow-band, high-frequency (NBHF) clicks, with eight to fifteen amplitude peaks at around 130 kilohertz."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html12","cntnt":{"mrkup":"“To hear an NBHF click you have to play it about one hundred times slower,” Cosentino says. (When sounds are slowed down, pitch descends. Humans can hear between 20 hertz, roughly equivalent to the lowest pedal on a pipe organ, and 20 kilohertz.)"},"type":"p"},{"id":"html13","cntnt":{"mrkup":"In the recordings, Cosentino identified lower-frequency clicks standard for common dolphins. But even when Kylie appeared to be alone, Cosentino found clicks with eight or more amplitude peaks at the key 130 kilohertz- mark—the frequency at which porpoises chat. In other words, Kylie talks like a porpoise even when solo. The researchers also found that Kyle never whistles, as other dolphins do."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html14","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Cosentino observed that the exchanges between Kylie and the porpoises had the rhythm of a “conversation” between members of the same species—turn-taking with little overlap—though naturally it’s unclear how much meaningful information is relayed in Kylie’s attempts at porpoise clicks."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html15","cntnt":{"mrkup":"“It might be me barking to my dog and him barking back,” Cosentino says."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html16","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Regardless, this behavior represents “an attempt” at communication that the “porpoises probably recognize,” says Herzing, research director of the Wild Dolphin Project who has studied the behavior of Atlantic spotted dolphins in the Bahamas for more than three decades. Herzing, who wasn’t involved in the study, commends the authors on the clever experimental design in a natural setting."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html17","cntnt":{"mrkup":"“The results are tantalizing,” she says. “What’s really telling is that Kylie doesn’t make any whistles, because dolphins always make whistles and porpoises never do.”"},"type":"p"},{"id":"b2c80080-ac63-4789-82ad-8b4d2689ccf4","cntnt":{"cmsType":"image","hasCopyright":true,"id":"b2c80080-ac63-4789-82ad-8b4d2689ccf4","lines":3,"positionMetaBottom":true,"showMore":true,"caption":"Harbor porpoises near Shetland, Scotland. For the first time, scientists have found a dolphin that “identifies as a porpoise,” able to make the species’ unique clicking sounds.","credit":"Photograph by Scotland: The Big Picture, Nature Picture Library","image":{"crps":[{"nm":"raw","aspRto":1.5025678650036685,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/8342d273-f986-40cf-8c6a-b38fe2984eec/naturepl_01551562.jpg"},{"nm":"16x9","aspRto":1.7777777777777777,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/8342d273-f986-40cf-8c6a-b38fe2984eec/naturepl_01551562_16x9.jpg"},{"nm":"3x2","aspRto":1.5,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/8342d273-f986-40cf-8c6a-b38fe2984eec/naturepl_01551562_3x2.jpg"},{"nm":"square","aspRto":1,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/8342d273-f986-40cf-8c6a-b38fe2984eec/naturepl_01551562_square.jpg"},{"nm":"2x3","aspRto":0.6666666666666666,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/8342d273-f986-40cf-8c6a-b38fe2984eec/naturepl_01551562_2x3.jpg"},{"nm":"3x4","aspRto":0.75,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/8342d273-f986-40cf-8c6a-b38fe2984eec/naturepl_01551562_3x4.jpg"},{"nm":"4x3","aspRto":1.3333333333333333,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/8342d273-f986-40cf-8c6a-b38fe2984eec/naturepl_01551562_4x3.jpg"},{"nm":"2x1","aspRto":2,"url":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/8342d273-f986-40cf-8c6a-b38fe2984eec/naturepl_01551562_2x1.jpg"}],"rt":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/8342d273-f986-40cf-8c6a-b38fe2984eec/naturepl_01551562","src":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/8342d273-f986-40cf-8c6a-b38fe2984eec/naturepl_01551562.jpg","crdt":"Photograph by Scotland: The Big Picture, Nature Picture Library","dsc":"Harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), Shetland, Scotland, UK, October.","ext":"jpg","ttl":"naturepl_01551562"},"align":"pageWidth","belowParagraph":true,"imageSrc":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/8342d273-f986-40cf-8c6a-b38fe2984eec/naturepl_01551562_16x9.jpg?w=636&h=358","size":"medium"},"type":"inline"},{"id":"html18","cntnt":{"mrkup":"One of the greatest challenges of marine bioacoustics is identifying which creatures made what sound, says Laela Sayigh, an associate professor of animal behavior at Hampshire College. “They don’t make any external movement associated with sound, and most of the time you can’t see them anyways,” Sayigh says."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html19","cntnt":{"mrkup":"However, Kylie can be distinguished in this case—by her accent. “It still looks like she’s struggling” to get as high-pitched as the porpoises, Cosentino says—the peaks on her clicks aren’t as crisp as they should be, and there are some lower-frequency sounds mixed in with the high notes."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html20","cntnt":{"mrkup":"“If they were singers, Kylie would be Pavarotti and the porpoises would be Mariah Carey.”"},"type":"p"},{"id":"html21","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Cetaceans in captivity are capable vocal mimics, Herzing notes, pointing to killer whales and belugas that mimicked bottlenose dolphin tankmates. And a 2016 bioacoustics study found that a cross-fostered Risso’s dolphin in an Italian marine park whistled more like the bottlenose dolphins it was raised with than wild members of its species."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html22","cntnt":{"mrkup":"However, that Kylie makes NBHF-like clicks while alone “draws into question” if she’s clicking to communicate with harbor porpoises or just mimicking the sound, Sayigh says."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html23","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Melon-headed conversation"},"type":"h2"},{"id":"html24","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Dolphins, porpoises, and whales are all cetaceans, descendants of land-dwelling mammals that made their way back to the water over millions of years. As they re-adapted to life in the ocean, “evolutionarily, the nostrils became the blowhole,” Cosentino says."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html25","cntnt":{"mrkup":"While toothed whales like dolphins and porpoises have only one open nostril, both nasal cavities are still present below the surface, each capped by a muscular structure called “monkey lips.” (Cetacean anatomy is often described in colorful terms, originating from descriptions by whalers). The monkey lips are somewhat analogous to our own vocal cords, controlling airflow—and when air is forced from the lungs through the “lips” on the left nasal cavity “it’s like letting the air out of a balloon,” creating warbling whistles, Cosentino says."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html26","cntnt":{"mrkup":"The right nasal cavity is responsible for the clicks used in both communication and navigation. It dead-ends next to a fatty deposit on the toothed whale’s forehead called a melon, which amplifies and focuses the cetacean’s vocalizations. Since both sets of monkey lips operate independently, some cetaceans, including bottlenose dolphins, can click and whistle at the same time—kind of like Mongolian throat-singing. (Learn more: The pioneering science that unlocked the secrets of whale culture.)"},"type":"p"},{"id":"html27","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Kylie’s story is part of a broad field of research into how cetaceans interact with members of other species. “They’re very social, they’re very sexual, and they’re very communicative,” says Herzing. “These animals survive and adapt socially, and sound is a natural way they do it.”"},"type":"p"},{"id":"html28","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Well-documented interspecies adoptions also demonstrate that species divisions may not be as clear-cut as once thought. Examples include a Canadian beluga pod that took in a narwhal calf and a spinner dolphin that lived among Tahiti bottlenose for 20 years."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html29","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Recent DNA analyses also demonstrate we’ve only scratched the surface of the extent of hybridization, Herzing emphasizes. Bottlenose dolphins have hybridized with at least 10 species in captivity and in the wild, including cetaceans as disparate as the pilot whale and the Guiana dolphin. Researchers hypothesize that cetaceans are able to hybridize so successfully because of their shared DNA—their species diverged only within the past 10 million years."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html30","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Besides attempts at communication, Kylie seems close to porpoises in other ways. On multiple occasions, Nairn has seen female porpoises bring their young calves to interact with Kylie. Since porpoise calves usually stick very close to mom until they’re weaned, Nairn was surprised to watch them swim with the dolphin in echelon, a position just behind her pectoral fin that researchers say is the cetacean equivalent to “carrying” a baby, Nairn explains."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html31","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Nairn has also observed male porpoises attempting to mount Kylie. But does she entertain their advances? “I would even say she courts, aye,” Nairn admits with a chuckle. Mating is theoretically anatomically possible, although there haven’t been any scientifically documented dolphin-porpoise hybrids, Herzing says. "},"type":"p"},{"id":"html32","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Ever since a week of intense storms in February 2021 caused a massive drilling ship to become unmoored near her favorite buoy, Kylie has been missing. Nairn says it’s not out of character for her to relocate after a big disturbance to one of her “holiday buoys” elsewhere in the Clyde for months at a stretch, even up to a year, but he can’t help but worry."},"type":"p"},{"id":"html33","cntnt":{"mrkup":"Nairn and his colleagues say they’re eager to look—and listen—for Kylie as soon as the spring field season begins—and see what else she might teach us."},"type":"p"}],"cid":"drn:src:natgeo:unison::prod:a6b0c4d7-222c-4dd9-aa6d-92f5cc8b9d2c","cntrbGrp":[{"contributors":[{"displayName":"Elizabeth Anne Brown"}],"title":"By","rl":"Writer"}],"mode":"richtext","dscrptn":"A wild dolphin named Kylie may be able to “converse” with porpoises, a striking example of cross-species communication.","enableAds":true,"endbug":true,"isMetered":true,"isUserAuthed":false,"ldMda":{"cmsType":"image","hasCopyright":true,"id":"03deb152-633a-4631-ab9b-62414e4d3d14","lines":3,"positionMetaBottom":true,"showMore":true,"caption":"A common dolphin frolicking in Scottish waters. Researchers have observed a wild solitary dolphin named Kylie that can vocalize like a harbor porpoise.","credit":"Photograph by Scotland: The Big Picture, Minden 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by Scotland: The Big Picture, Minden Pictures","dsc":"Common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) jumping out the water, Shetland, Scotland, UK, January.","ext":"jpg","ttl":"Minden_90812764"},"imageSrc":"https://i.natgeofe.com/n/ee319c9c-a628-430b-8cef-76d10c1b344e/Minden_90812764_16x9.jpg?w=636&h=358","hideEndBug":true,"type":"imageLead","hideLine":true},"mdDt":"2022-03-24T22:27:44.526Z","readTime":"9 min read","schma":{"athrs":[{"name":"Elizabeth Anne Brown"}],"cnnicl":"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/dolphin-speaks-porpoise-communicates-with-other-species","kywrds":"interspecies communication, about dolphins, dolphin intelligence, dolphin communication","lg":"https://assets-cdn.nationalgeographic.com/natgeo/static/default.NG.logo.dark.jpg","pblshr":"National Geographic","abt":"Dolphins","sclDsc":"A wild dolphin named Kylie may be able to “converse” with porpoises, a striking example of cross-species 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